Philosophy Questions: Nagel, Russell, Unger, and Swinburne

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Philosophy
1 THOMAS NAGEL, What Is It Like to Be a Bat? 356 According to Nagel, "we appear to be faced with a general difficulty about psychophysical reduction." What is that difficulty?
Thomas Nagel defines difficulty as human consciousness or the conscious experience. Difficulty is what connects the body and the mind. Therefore, it is a general difficulty because it is very hard to understand and experience with its absence and life cannot be interesting. Consciousness constitutes the mind body problem (Elpidorou, & Guy Dove, 128). Without the consciousness the mind-body problem cannot be interesting. On the other hand conscious experience occurs in any level of human life (Nagel, 436). Thomas Nagel attempts to disprove reductionism. For instance, a reductionists in the approach of the mind-body problem asserts that the mental process humans experience as a consciousness that can be illustrated fully through physical procedures in the brain and body
Conscious experience is everywhere and it is present in many animals and because of that in order for an organism to experience consciousness, that organism must be unusual in the sense that its subjective character of experience is very exceptional. In this case an organism has a conscious mental state in the case if and only if there is something that it is like for such an organism to itself (Nagel, 440). Additionally, a subjective character cannot be elaborated through a system of intentional states. Alternatively consciousness cannot either be elaborated without the presence of a subjective character of experience.
Thomas Nagel uses the metaphor of bats to illustrate the difference that exist between the subjective and objective concepts. Bats are assumed to have conscious experience. Therefore Nagel states that of people were able to metamorphose themselves just like bats that their brains cannot be wired as bats from the beginning, therefore they would be proficient to experience the behaviors and the life of a bat instead of the state of mind (Nagel, 437)
2 BERTRAND RUSSELL, Appearance and Reality, from The Problems 410Does Russell think us "immediately know" (a) sensations, (b) sense data, or (3) communities of souls?
According to Bertrand Russell, sense data is the understanding that human beings develop their own things in their environment without having to focus on sense. Despite the fact that people do not observe or calculate any data about an object, people can be able to cope and understand with the presence of sense data. Bertrand Russell approached the challenges of psychology with the use of the Cartesian technique of radical doubt whereby he revokes all the former assumptions on reality and existence. Bertrand inquiry starts with the observation of his immediate surroundings (Bradley, 200). He examines a table by determining its color shape and texture at an adequate prompt doubts whether the or not the table does exist.
According to Bertrand, sense data are things are known to human beings in sensation. For example there is a sensation of greenness when people see a patch of green color. Therefore sense data is differentiated from the physical world that is full of objects (Behie, Marc Oxenham, an...