Leibniz: Argument on Existence of Material Substance and Doctrine of Indiscernibility of Identicals

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1 What is Leibniz's argument against the existence of material substance? Explain Leibniz's account of the relation between monads and composites (physical objects). In particular, what do you suppose Leibniz could mean by the "true atoms of nature."? What are the roles of appetition and apperception in Leibniz's philosophy? What is Leibniz's doctrine of the pre-established harmony? Contrast Leibniz's conception of the pre-established harmony of nature and grace with Spinoza's conception of Parallelism between mind and body.
The Existence of Material Substance by Leibniz
Leibniz's argument against the existence of material substance is founded on his belief in monads, which are immaterial and indivisible entities. He posited that the fundamental constituents of reality are these monads, which do not possess physical attributes like size, shape, or location. According to Leibniz, each monad has a unique set of perceptions, and the principle of sufficient reason ensures that there is a reason for these specific perceptions (Gut, 2017).
The Relationship Between Monads and Composites
The connection between monads and composites takes shape when considering that everyday physical objects, such as desks and chairs, derive their existence from a deeper layer of metaphysical reality. Within this framework, we acknowledge the existence of composites, essentially groupings of simple substances. Consequently, it follows that simple substances, as the foundational elements, must also be in existence. Monads, as immaterial, indivisible, and unique entities, collectively contribute to what we perceive as physical objects or composites. These physical entities do not stand alone as independent substances but instead emerge as phenomena through the interactions and perceptions of monads (Gut, 2017; McDonough, 2019; Whipple, 2022).
The “True Atoms of Nature”
Leibniz's mention of the "true atoms of nature" corresponds to his notion of "monads," which he defines as uncomplex, indivisible substances devoid of parts, and he posits that these monads serve as the elemental, immaterial building blocks forming the basis for all composite entities in the natural world.
Appetition and Apperception
Leibniz's philosophy introduces two fundamental ideas: appetition and apperception. Appetition signifies the inherent inclinations within simple substances, known as monads, to transition between different perceptions. These transitions reflect how monads engage with the world through their perceptions, guided by an inner principle of activity and change. This internal force, constituting the essence of each monad, finds expression through appetition, which impels monads towards fresh perceptions and sustains their active participation in the ever-evolving flow of mental life (Kulstad & Carlin, 2007).
Conversely, apperception relates to the awareness or conscious understanding of a monad's internal state. It represents the level of consciousness a monad possesses regarding its mental states and transitions. Leibniz notes that apperception is not universally present; it does not apply to all souls and may not be a constant attribute across all beings...