Review of the Vaccination Paper

Please review the Vaccination paper already written below as well as uploaded to the materials. And then review what the tutor has written the overview comments about my essay below (1. organization, 2. use of resources and 3. grammar and mechanics). The tutor has also embedded comments [in bold and in brackets] within my essay to improve the writing/paper.
the following are the tutors comments on the essay.
1. Regarding Organization:
Some of the body paragraphs seem to be missing closing statements that clarify the implications that you are trying to make out of each paragraph. Take a look at this example from the paper:
The Oxford-AstraZeneca, Sputnik V, and Johnson & Johnson COVID-19 vaccines are what are known as viral vector vaccines that use different adenoviruses as the vector (Hewings-Martin, 2021).
This statement essentially leaves your readers hanging. What is the point that you are trying to make here? How does this discussion point relate with the main idea of your paper? Construct a fitting closing statement for this paragraph using your answers to those questions above. Also, Make sure your other paragraphs conclude with closing statements too.
2. Use of Resources:
Next, the lack of in-text citations in your draft makes it difficult to determine which information came from which source listed in your reference page.
Without these citations, the discussion appears plagiarized as well, and we want to avoid that.
Look at this excerpt for instance:
In the 20th century, chemical inactivation was applied to viruses. Influenza vaccine was the first one to do so, followed by one for polio and then for hepatitis A.
The lack of an in-text citation here causes your readers to wonder where in your list of resources this information taken from. Because of this issue, you miss to give credit to the author/s who originally thought of or researched this idea. Avoid this issue by citing your sources properly.
Here's an example to guide you:
According to Garber (2013), the Nazis called the female bomber pilots Nacthexen, meaning “night witches,” because the noises made by their fighter planes reminded the Germans of the sounds of witches’ broomsticks (p. 134).
As you can see from this example above, the added citation not only guides my readers where to find this source but also gives proper credit to the author who has give me the idea. If you need more information about how to properly cite your sources, you may visit this link: APA 7 Style.
3. Grammar & Mechanics:
Finally, I noticed several subject-verb agreement errors in your draft. These verbs ought to agree with their subjects in number to convey clear ideas to your readers. Let us take an example from your draft:
Access to the vaccines in an affordable, convenient, acceptable and effective timely manner are yet ti manifest.
The noun here, “access,” is plural but the verb you use, “are,” is singular. Do not let the phrases or clauses in between the subject and the verb confuse you because they do not affect the agreement. Singular subjects would still need singular verbs and plural subjects would need plural verbs.
Here, let me show you an example:
Incorrect: The possibility of students entering universities are not as far-fetched as everyone deems so.
Correct: The possibility of students entering universities is not as far-fetched as everyone deems so.
Now, how about rereading your paper to check if all your subjects agree with their verbs?
Summary of Steps to better your paper:
• Conclude your body paragraphs with closing statements.
• Consistently cite your sources to avoid plagiarizing.
• Make sure your verbs agree with their subjects in number.
Please look for comments [in bold and in brackets] in your essay below.
Thank you for submitting your work to Smarthinking! We hope to see you again soon.
Below is the essay that needs to be fixed with the above steps that tutor provided:
Vaccinations

Austin Marie Tarlini
Health Service Administration, Santa Fe College
HSA3111: U.S. Health Care Systems
CHEP Number: 2
Chapters Listed: 12 & 14
3/7/2020


Vaccination
I. Introduction
The SARS-CoV—2, or COVID-19, was first detected in Wuhan, China through zoonotic transmission in a large seafood market where live wild animals have been traded. In the first few weeks of the epidemic, the Chinese local authorities were believed to have failed to take appropriate intervention methods that would have prevented the virus to spread so quickly. In the weeks that followed, and even during the Chinese New Year festivities where thousands of tourists flocked the city, authorities remained mum and dismissive of the worsening epidemic. The human-to-human transmission was largely ignored, resulting to its global spread. By March 24, 2020, COVID-19 had infected more than 381,000 across 195 countries, and killing more than 16,000 people (Tay et al., 2020). In the months that followed, governments from around the world have implemented various intervention methods to halt the spread of the disease. According to Hewings-Martin (2021) a sigh of relief came when Russia’s Sputnik V vaccine was released in early August 2020; Pfizer-BioNTech and Moderna’s vaccine were notable in their release in December 2020 for their findings of 94% and higher efficacy rate against COVID-19. Furthermore, as these vaccines came out, variants of the virus were taking shape—if not widespread already. The known variants (which is reportedly more infectious and capable of bypassing current immunity) were detected in the United Kingdom, South Africa and Brazil. These variants can possibly bring current vaccines inoperable.

This discussion highlights the modern warfare between science and nature in the form of vaccines against viruses and variants. In fact, since the inception of vaccines in the 18th century, it has always been at war, not only with viruses, but its mutations as well. It is a race against time, where medical science is pitted against the inevitability of cellular evolution. The following highlights our current war with COVID-19 and how vaccines are combating it with the various vaccination types it has learned throughout history.
II. The Current War
In the past few months, the world became witness to the age-old rivalry between vaccines and viruses. Two biggest development happened in late 2020. The first was the arrival of effective vaccines—reviewed, tested, and retested to have as much as 94% efficacy rates. According to The Editorial Board (2021) the other was the emergence of virus variants that threatened to make them void. A global race is now under way between the two. Which one will come out on top will determine when the virus can truly be tamed.
[This statement lacks a complete thought, thereby making it a fragment. Complete the fragment by connecting this fragment to the clause before it. Check the rest of your draft for similar errors.]
Yet because the viruses are backed up by natural evolution, the only way vaccines can tame it is for drastic human intervention in the form of physical distancing, city-wide lockdowns and quarantine protocols.
Nature, it seems, is on the side of the virus. It will infect, it will jump from one organism to the next. It never tires out. It does not choose its victims. It is absolutely unbiased. Vaccines, on the other hand, has the burden to keep up with the viral evolution and mutations. It has to be tested for safety in a set amount of time alongside a number of test patients that should represent all of us. Once developed, it has to be financed, it has to coordinate with logistics, it has to be sealed and shipped at the right temperature and in the right shipping cargo. Vaccines cannot overcome global pandemic if its war against it is not won all around the world (The Editorial Board, 2021).
In the current ongoing war with COVID-19, we see firsthand how vaccine development and distribution is struggling to keep up with this virus. Viral pandemics already present a two-pronged attack. First, it already overwhelmed hospitals; and then, on the development of the vaccines, there is an unequal access to it. Access to the vaccines in an affordable, convenient, acceptable and effective timely manner are yet ti manifest. Access to care also helps assess the effectiveness of the care delivery system and is increasingly linked to quality of care and the efficient use of necessary services (Shi & Singh, 2019, p.286).
According to The Editorial Board (2021) COVID-19 vaccines may have surpassed total confirmed cases to date; yet in South Africa, a new variant has emerged that could infect people who already have had the original virus or have been vaccinated. In Brazil, a variant also indicates it being capable of evading naturally acquired immunity; while British scientists said that more infectious strain is now sweeping the United Kingdom and was evolving faster that the current vaccines can counter them. If anything, this tells us one thing: that vaccines need to advance simultaneously in all countries. Yet, against what seems to be insurmountable odds, how do we combat a virus that is hell bent to become a deadly endemic, because we sure cannot continue living with all these social distancing protocols and mask mandates? It turns out, science has been building steam, increasing their arsenal every time an epidemic/pandemic occurs.
III. Vaccine Types and Development
In over 300 years since the first vaccine was developed, mankind has pushed back the threats of virus. The following technologies have been used, giving people some fighting chance to keep up with fast viral mutations: attenuation, cell culture, re-assortment, inactivation, capsular polysaccharides, protein-based vaccines, and genetic engineering (Plotkin, 2014).

According to Plotkin (2014) the idea of attenuation of virulent infections developed slowly over centuries. Variolation was analogous to the use of small amount of poison to render one immune to toxic effects. Jenner's use of an animal poxvirus (probably horsepox) to prevent smallpox was essentially based on the idea that an agent virulent for animals might be attenuated in humans (Plotkin, 2014). Furthermore, it was Louise Pasteur and his colleagues who can be credited for attenuation, first with Pasteurella multocida, the cause of a diarrheal disease in chickens, then anthrax in sheep and most sensationally rabies virus in animals and humans. Plotkin, by the 1940’s, virologists understood that attenuation could be achieved by passage in abnormal hosts. A revolution happened with the discovery that cells could be cultured in vitro and used as substrates for viral growth. Researchers then showed that many viruses could be grown in cell culture, including polio and measles, and this was vigorously applied by vaccine developers. The oral polio vaccine along with measles, rubella, mumps, and varicella vaccines were all examples of this.
In regards to reassortment virologist took a different approach with RNA manipulation. Certain RNA viruses have segmented genomes that can be manipulated in such fashion similar to the chromosomes of eukaryotes. By cocultivations of two viruses in cell culture with clone selections by plaque formation allowed the isolation of viruses with RNA segments from both viruses. Through reassortment, virologists have created three major vaccines: live and inactivated influenza, and one for the rotavirus (Plotkin, 2014).
Another discovery toward the end of the 19th century was that immunogenicity could be retained if bacteria were carefully killed by heat or chemical treatment. Inactivation was first applied to pathogens like cholera bacilli, typhoid and plague. This was the era of antibacterial vaccines. In the 20th century, chemical inactivation was applied to viruses. Influenza vaccine was the first one to do so, followed by one for polio and then for hepatitis A.
Early in the history of bacteriology, studies have shown that many pathogens were surrounded by a polysaccharide capsule and that antibodies against the capsule could promote phagocytosis. Using this information was the development of a vaccine by Artenstein, Gottschlich, and coworkers, which was used to control epidemic and endemic disease in military recruits (Plotkin 2014). Other vaccines consist of partially or fully-purified proteins. Most inactivated influenza vaccines used today are generated by growing the viruses in embryonated eggs and then breaking up the whole virus with detergents.
By the end of the 20thcentury, vaccine development has turned toward genetic engineering. The first one to be developed was against hepatitis B. At first, because many such vaccines and others that came before could not be practical in the long term, virologists placed the coding sequence for the S antigen into yeast cells (Plotkin, 2014).
Recently, with the rushed development of vaccines against COVID-19, two types of vaccines have been utilized, using a combination of types mentioned about. The first, employed by Pfizer-BioNTech and Moderna, are mRNA vaccines. Scientist have been working on mRNA vaccine for infectious disease for several years now. The mRNA vaccines do not contain SARS-CoV-2 virus. Instead, they carry a chemically synthesized piece of messenger (m)RNA that contains information to make own cells that produce the coronavirus spike protein. This responds by creating anti-bodies and develop long term immunity. TheOxford-AstraZeneca, Sputnik V, and Johnson & Johnson COVID-19 vaccines are what are known as viral vector vaccines that use different adenoviruses as the vector (Hewings-Martin, 2021).
IV. Conclusion
There are perhaps a million types of virus, all of which has the potential to mutate and then make a big jump from animals to humans. Vaccines and the various methods to combat them are man’s only hope to match its rapid evolution, saving lives and contributing to our longevity; however, rapid vaccine development is only the beginning. In the future, pandemics need to be handled by the healthcare system by adopting innovation such as the 21st Century Cares Act of 2016, which is aimed at advancing medical innovation and providing quick access to new treatments (Shi & Singh, 2019, p.337). Thus, vaccine development should not just lie with defeating the virus, but by doing things differently to match viral mutations in every corner. Mankind have been waging against this invisible enemy for thousands of years. Vaccines and the various methods to combat them are man’s only hope to match its rapid evolution, saving lives and contributing to our longevity.


References
Hewings-Martin, Y. (2021). How do COVID-19 vaccines work? Medical News Today.
https://www(dot)medicalnewstoday(dot)com/articles/how-do-covid-19-vaccines-work
Plotkin, S. (2014). History of vaccination. PNAS, 111(34), 12283–12287.
https://doi(dot)org/10.1073/pnas.1400472111
Shi, L. & Singh, D. A. (2019).Essentials of the US Health Care Systems (5th ed.). Jones & Bartlett Learning.
Tay, M.Z., Poh, C.M., Rénia, L., MacAry, P., & Ng, L.F.P. (2020). The trinity of COVID-19:
immunity, inflammation and intervention. Nature Reviews Immunology 20. 363–374.
https://doi(dot)org/10.1038/s41577-020-0311-8
The Editorial Board. (2021). The global race between vaccines and mutations. Financial Times.
https://www(dot)ft(dot)com/content/f9a894e5-3c75-4db5-af74-3203e14bbfda