Brain Structures, Stages of Sleep, and the Circadian Rhythms

Physiological Psychology
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1 Discuss the significant brain structures involved in hearing analysis/comprehension. Explain for each central structure what problems in hearing and analysis/comprehension would arise if they were damaged.
The two primary structures in hearing analysis or comprehension involve the primary and secondary auditory cortex. The pathway starts from the outer ear, which transmits the auditory frequencies to the auditory canal. Here, the sound wave causes the tympanic membrane to vibrate. The vibration depends on the loudness of the sound, where the vibration is directly proportional to the pitch. The vibrations will then be conducted to the ossicles, which include the malleus, incus, and stapes. These three structures conduct the vibrations to the inner ear. Damage in the structures in this pathway may lead to conductive hearing loss (Shahid, 2023; Sooriyamoorthy & De Jesus, 2022).
The sound waves will then be transmitted to the scala vestibuli and scala tympani, which will conduct the vibrations to the Organ of Corti. Consequently, the Organ of Corti is responsible for converting the vibrations into electrochemical signals transmitted to the brainstem nuclei via the cochlear division of the vestibulocochlear nerve. Damage to the cochlear nerve may lead to auditory neuropathy that may lead to difficulty perceiving sounds, particularly in noisy environments (Shahid, 2023).
The signals or synapses will ultimately be transmitted to the primary auditory cortex located in the temporal lobe, and this Area is responsible for the conscious perception of sounds. Damage in this Area will result in cortical deafness or the non-perception of sounds (Shahid, 2023). Javed et al. (2022) stated that the synapses would be transmitted from this Area to Wernicke's or Brodmann's Area 22, which is responsible for speech comprehension. Damage to this Area results in receptive aphasia, which is the inability to understand written or spoken language.
2 Discuss the significant brain structures involved in the movement: their role, and what problems might arise if there were damage to each.
Five brain structures are involved in the movement. First, the primary motor cortex, found in the frontal lobe, is responsible for voluntary movement. Damage to this region can result in weakness, paralysis, or difficulty initiating movements on the opposite side of the body. This condition is known as contralateral hemiparesis or hemiplegia, depending on the severity (Javed et al., 2022).
Second, the basal ganglia comprise the putamen, caudate nucleus, and globus pallidus. It has a role in the commencement, coordination, and execution of movements. Hence, damage in this Area results in tremors, bradykinesia, rigidity, and postural instability. These are seen in Parkinson's disease (Young et al., 2021).
Third, the cerebellum is responsible for fine-tuning and adjusting movements based on motor responses. Damage to this Area results in incoordination or ataxia, difficulty in fine movements, and problems with posture and balance (Solstrand et al., 2020).
Fourth, the brainstem consists of the midbrain, pons, medulla, and other significant nuclei, such as cra...