Epigenetics: The Science of Change

There are three sections to this paper: 1) A glossary of terms from your article—translated to lay lan-guage 2) A summary of the article translated to lay language and 3) The nursing application of your top-ic choice guided by the Essential Genetic/Genomic Nursing Competencies
Can you find article about DNA and RNA which affect human healthy. Follow the following instruction or example to do this paper
EXAMPLE
Section 1—Vocabulary:
(Words with an asterisk (*) are words/phrases I have not heard of before or could not find in my notes from N323—I had to look them up.)
Cognition- brain activity; thinking; understanding
Cortical vs. subcortical—Cortical regions of the brain are the main regions (frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital). Subcortical regions are deeper in the brain and include the structures within the brainstem, midbrain, and forebrain (ie: hippocampus, amygdala, hypothalamus, basal ganglia etc.). The cortical and subcortical regions are linked by the limbic system.
Gene expression: a gene “doing its job” —typically, making a protein that has some important function in the body.
Gene ontology*: The study of how a gene product (protein) works at the molecular level, where the gene product (protein) works at the cellular level, and how multiple gene products (proteins) interact and work together to influence biological processes.
genomic loci—the location(s) of a gene or genes on a chromosome.
genotype—the structure and function of genes
microarray: technology that allows for examining multiple sections (like millions!) of DNA at once or allows us to see the presence and amount of RNA all across the genome. (Looking at RNA will tell you what genes are “doing their job” or, in other words, being expressed)
phrenology*—the detailed study of the shape and size of the cranium as a supposed indication of character and mental abilities.
neuroticism: negative feelings/emotions/moods to include anxiety, fear, anger, jealousy, de-pression, loneliness.
phenotype—the observable characteristics of the genotype/environmental interaction (in this case, cognitive disorders)
proxy—substitution
transcriptome : Looking at the transcriptome of an organism—or of specific tissue (in this case, the brain)— would be examining all the RNA—(the product of transcription).
Section 2—Opening Paragraph summary:
In the past 25 years, we’ve gained the ability to use non-invasive technology (imaging) to exam-ine the structure and function of brain regions. By learning about these brain regions as they car-ry out their functions, the hope is to build a deeper understanding of genetic/genomic contribu-tions to cognitive disorders, mental health, and human behaviors. We have come a long way from the time of using phrenology as a scientific way to determine brain function and intelligence.
Genetic contributions to Cognition:
Scientists have long been interested in discovering the biological (genetic) contribution to
brain activity (Cognition). We have learned that an important risk factor in brain disorders is hav-ing a positive family history. (biological brain activity “runs in families”). As we discover more about molecular level functions (genes) in the brain, we’re finding precise ways that medications can help people with a brain disorder—and we’re also learning how brain gene function influences behavior. We are measuring gene function(s) in the brain by looking at a person’s educational attainment as well as personality traits like self-reported well-being, depressive symptoms, and negative moods/emotions (neuroticism).
Quantifying Gene Expression in the Human Brain
Advances in technology (microarrays and next generation sequencing) have helped us look at what genes are being expressed in specific brain regions during various time periods in devel-opment. We can measure RNA amounts and that measurement gives us data about gene ex-pression levels. Despite the fact that these insights into human brain gene expression have been gained by looking at post-mortem tissue (the brains of people who have died), we can still compare the genotype (DNA/RNA) and phenotype (cognitive condition/behavior—the example given autism spectrum disorder (ASD)) —with the genotype and phenotype of a control (“nor-mal”) brain.
(Box 1 gives the pros and cons of three types of tests that help us look at gene expression with-in tissues—in this case, the brain. It’s less important to know how each one of these tests work (but if you’re curious—please explore!) than it is to know that they can be done—all because of advancing technology.)
Correlations of Human Brain Gene Expression With Functional Imaging Data
Studies have been done that look at gene function (making proteins) and linking those proteins to cognition by seeing what’s going on in cortical regions of the brain by using MRI. This review ex-plains how multiple studies (with relatively small sample sizes) have used advanced technologies to look at the specific protein activities, in specific brain areas, and how those multiple proteins interact together in brain pathways. (This is gene ontology). These pathways help us see how genes are influential in functional connectivity and activities of the brain—meaning influencing cognition—or how we think and behave.
Past and future studies are being done on non-human subjects (worms, mice, and rhesus mon-keys) because brain studies on humans are not completely possible until after death. Scientists are hoping that these studies on animal brains will advance our understanding of human cogni-tion—especially in the areas of cognitive disorders such as Alzheimer Disease, Autism, schizo-phrenia, and depression. Genes in brains across species have similar functions.
Future Directions
We now know that genes (and their products) influence human brain function and thus cognition and behavior. We also understand that these networks can be passed down to offspring. A com-mon approach to future studies would be helpful in standardizing data collection and analyzing outcomes. The sharing of data amongst researchers from different institutes could accelerate and improve progress in this area of study.
An ideal (though complicated) way to study the genomics of cognition and cognitive disorders would be to develop longitudinal (long-term) experiments where people are genotyped, pheno-typed, imaged, (such as with MRI) and followed throughout their lifespan—and then culminating in tissue donation after death for further study. One huge complication of this is subjects outliving researchers! Also, even though data from the transcriptome of one brain would necessarily be collected at one time point—the collection of data from many people at many different time points would allow scientists to make inferences about the population of people with cognitive disorders.
As always—more research is necessary. The study of the link between genes and be-haviors is still in its infancy and very complicated. But the first steps have been taken and hopefully we will continue to learn more and gain a deeper understanding of hu-man cognitive function and behaviors right down to the level of our genes.
Section 3—Nursing application: (Make this section especially applicable to your Ge-netic/Genomic Competencies)
We chose this topic because we believe that a deeper understanding of the relation-ship between genes and cognition and behaviors—especially as they relate to mental health disorders—will help remove the stigma of mental illness. As nurses, caring for people with a better understanding of how their brain works at the molecular level and how that brain function influences their behaviors and choices, (whether or not they have a mental illness) allows us to provide more holistic care. This article adds to the wider discussion of “nature vs. nurture.” It also helps shape an acceptance (or at least a more in-depth understanding) of human behaviors. Understanding humans better leads to greater compassion.
Applicable Genetic/Genomic Competencies: (These are stated directly from the Es-sentials of Genetic and Genomic Nursing: Competencies, Curricula Guidelines, and Outcome Indicators, 2nd edition (pages 11-13)—easy to download! )
1. Recognize when one’s own attitudes and values related to genetic and genomic sci-ence may affect care provided to clients.
2. Examine competency of practice on a regular basis, identifying areas of strength, as well as areas in which professional development related to genetics and genomics would be beneficial.
3. Incorporate genetic and genomic technologies and information into registered nurse practice.
4. Demonstrate in practice the importance of tailoring genetic and genomic information and services to clients based on their culture, religion, knowledge level, literacy, and preferred language.
5. Demonstrate an understanding of the relationship of genetics and genomics to health, prevention, screening, diagnostics, prognostics, selection of treatment and monitoring of treatment effectiveness.
6. Critically analyzes history and physical assessment findings for genetic, environmen-tal, and genomic influences and risk factors.
7. Identifies ethical, ethnic/ancestral, cultural, religious, legal, fiscal, and societal issues related to genetic and genomic information and technologies.
Article Citation: Konopka G. (2017). Cognitive genomics: Linking genes to behavior in the hu-man brain. Network Neuroscience, 1(1), 3–13. doi:10.1162/netn_a_00003